All living organisms proliferate by cell division, including cell cultures, microorganisms (such as bacteria, mycoplasma, yeast, protozoa, and other single-celled organisms), fungi, algae, plant cells, etc. Dividing cells of organisms can be destroyed, or their proliferation controlled, by methods that are based on the sensitivity of the dividing cells of these organisms to certain agents. For example, certain antibiotics stop the multiplication process of bacteria.
The process of eukaryotic cell division is called “mitosis”, which involves nice distinct phases (see Darnell et al., Molecular Cell Biology, New York: Scientific American Books, 1986, p. 149). During interphase, the cell replicates chromosomal DNA, which begins condensing in early prophase. At this point, centrioles (each cell contains 2) begin moving towards opposite poles of the cell. In middle prophase, each chromosome is composed of duplicate chromatids. Microtubular spindles radiate from regions adjacent to the centrioles, which are closer to their poles. By late prophase, the centrioles have reached the poles, and some spindle fibers extend to the center of the cell, while others extend from the poles to the chromatids. The cells then move into metaphase, when the chromosomes move toward the equator of the cell and align in the equatorial plane. Next is early anaphase, during which time daughter chromatids separate from each other at the equator by moving along the spindle fibers toward a centromere at opposite poles. The cell begins to elongate along the axis of the pole; the pole-to-pole spindles also elongate. Late anaphase occurs when the daughter chromosomes (as they are now called) each reach their respective opposite poles. At this point, cytokinesis begins as the cleavage furrow begins to form at the equator of the cell. In other words, late anaphase is the point at which pinching the cell membrane begins. During telophase, cytokinesis is nearly complete and spindles disappear. Only a relatively narrow membrane connection joins the two cytoplasms. Finally, the membranes separate fully, cytokinesis is complete and the cell returns to interphase.
In meiosis, the cell undergoes a second division, involving separation of sister chromosomes to opposite poles of the cell along spindle fibers, followed by formation of a cleavage furrow and cell division. However, this division is not preceded by chromosome replication, yielding a haploid germ cell. Bacteria also divide by chromosome replication, followed by cell separation. However, since the daughter chromosomes separate by attachment to membrane components; there is no visible apparatus that contributes to cell division as in eukaryotic cells.
It is well known that tumors, particularly malignant or cancerous tumors, grow uncontrollably compared to normal tissue. Such expedited growth enables tumors to occupy an ever-increasing space and to damage or destroy tissue adjacent thereto. Furthermore, certain cancers are characterized by an ability to transmit cancerous “seeds”, including single cells or small cell clusters (metastases), to new locations where the metastatic cancer cells grow into additional tumors.
The rapid growth of tumors, in general, and malignant tumors in particular, as described above, is the result of relatively frequent cell division or multiplication of these cells compared to normal tissue cells. The distinguishably frequent cell division of cancer cells is the basis for the effectiveness of existing cancer treatments, e.g., irradiation therapy and the use of various chemotherapeutic agents. Such treatments are based on the fact that cells undergoing division are more sensitive to radiation and chemo-therapeutic agents than non-dividing cells. Because tumors cells divide much more frequently than normal cells, it is possible, to a certain extent, to selectively damage or destroy tumor cells by radiation therapy and/or chemotherapy. The actual sensitivity of cells to radiation, therapeutic agents, etc., is also dependent on specific characteristics of different types of normal or malignant cell types. Thus, unfortunately, the sensitivity of tumor cells is not sufficiently higher than that many types of normal tissues. This diminishes the ability to distinguish between tumor cells and normal cells, and therefore, existing cancer treatments typically cause significant damage to normal tissues, thus limiting the therapeutic effectiveness of such treatments. Furthermore, the inevitable damage to other tissue renders treatments very traumatic to the patients and, often, patients are unable to recover from a seemingly successful treatment. Also, certain types of tumors are not sensitive at all to existing methods of treatment.
There are also other methods for destroying cells that do not rely on radiation therapy or chemotherapy alone. For example, ultrasonic and electrical methods for destroying tumor cells can be used in addition to or instead of conventional treatments. Electric fields and currents have been used for medical purposes for many years. The most common is the generation of electric currents in a human or animal body by application of an electric field by means of a pair of conductive electrodes between which a potential difference is maintained. These electric currents are used either to exert their specific effects, i.e., to stimulate excitable tissue, or to generate heat by flowing in the body since it acts as a resistor. Examples of the first type of application include the following: cardiac defibrillators, peripheral nerve and muscle stimulators, brain stimulators, etc. Currents are used for heating, for example, in devices for tumor ablation, ablation of malfunctioning cardiac or brain tissue, cauterization, relaxation of muscle rheumatic pain and other pain, etc.
Another use of electric fields for medical purposes involves the utilization of high frequency oscillating fields transmitted from a source that emits an electric wave, such as an RF wave or a microwave source that is directed at the part of the body that is of interest (i.e., target). In these instances, there is no electric energy conduction between the source and the body; but rather, the energy is transmitted to the body by radiation or induction. More specifically, the electric energy generated by the source reaches the vicinity of the body via a conductor and is transmitted from it through air or some other electric insulating material to the human body.
In a conventional electrical method, electrical current is delivered to a region of the target tissue using electrodes that are placed in contact with the body of the patient. The applied electrical current destroys substantially all cells in the vicinity of the target tissue. Thus, this type of electrical method does not discriminate between different types of cells within the target tissue and results in the destruction of both tumor cells and normal cells.
Electric fields that can be used in medical applications can thus be separated generally into two different modes. In the first mode, the electric fields are applied to the body or tissues by means of conducting electrodes. These electric fields can be separated into two types, namely (1) steady fields or fields that change at relatively slow rates, and alternating fields of low frequencies that induce corresponding electric currents in the body or tissues, and (2) high frequency alternating fields (above 1 MHz) applied to the body by means of the conducting electrodes. In the second mode, the electric fields are high frequency alternating fields applied to the body by means of insulated electrodes.
The first type of electric field is used, for example, to stimulate nerves and muscles, pace the heart, etc. In fact, such fields are used in nature to propagate signals in nerve and muscle fibers, central nervous system (CNS), heart, etc. The recording of such natural fields is the basis for the ECG, EEG, EMG, ERG, etc. The field strength in these applications, assuming a medium of homogenous electric properties, is simply the voltage applied to the stimulating/recording electrodes divided by the distance between them. These currents can be calculated by Ohm's law and can have dangerous stimulatory effects on the heart and CNS and can result in potentially harmful ion concentration changes. Also, if the currents are strong enough, they can cause excessive heating in the tissues. This heating can be calculated by the power dissipated in the tissue (the product of the voltage and the current).
When such electric fields and currents are alternating, their stimulatory power, on nerve, muscle, etc., is an inverse function of the frequency. At frequencies above 1-10 KHz, the stimulation power of the fields approaches zero. This limitation is due to the fact that excitation induced by electric stimulation is normally mediated by membrane potential changes, the rate of which is limited by the RC properties (time constants on the order of 1 ms) of the membrane.
Regardless of the frequency, when such current inducing fields are applied, they are associated with harmful side effects caused by currents. For example, one negative effect is the changes in ionic concentration in the various “compartments” within the system, and the harmful products of the electrolysis taking place at the electrodes, or the medium in which the tissues are imbedded. The changes in ion concentrations occur whenever the system includes two or more compartments between which the organism maintains ion concentration differences. For example, for most tissues, [Ca++] in the extracellular fluid is about 2×10−3 M, while in the cytoplasm of typical cells its concentration can be as low as 10−7 M. A current induced in such a system by a pair of electrodes, flows in part from the extracellular fluid into the cells and out again into the extracellular medium. About 2% of the current flowing into the cells is carried by the Ca++ ions. In contrast, because the concentration of intracellular Ca++ is much smaller, only a negligible fraction of the currents that exits the cells is carried by these ions. Thus, Ca++ ions accumulate in the cells such that their concentrations in the cells increases, while the concentration in the extracellular compartment may decrease. These effects are observed for both DC and alternating currents (AC). The rate of accumulation of the ions depends on the current intensity ion mobilities, membrane ion conductance, etc. An increase in [Ca++] is harmful to most cells and if sufficiently high will lead to the destruction of the cells. Similar considerations apply to other ions. In view of the above observations, long term current application to living organisms or tissues can result in significant damage. Another major problem that is associated with such electric fields, is due to the electrolysis process that takes place at the electrode surfaces. Here charges are transferred between the metal (electrons) and the electrolytic solution (ions) such that charged active radicals are formed. These can cause significant damage to organic molecules, especially macromolecules and thus damage the living cells and tissues.
In contrast, when high frequency electric fields, above 1 MHz and usually in practice in the range of GHz, are induced in tissues by means of insulated electrodes, the situation is quite different. These type of fields generate only capacitive or displacement currents, rather than the conventional charge conducting currents. Under the effect of this type of field, living tissues behave mostly according to their dielectric properties rather than their electric conductive properties. Therefore, the dominant field effect is that due to dielectric losses and heating. Thus, it is widely accepted that in practice, the meaningful effects of such fields on living organisms, are only those due to their heating effects, i.e., due to dielectric losses.
In U.S. Pat. No. 6,043,066 ('066) to Mangano, a method and device are presented which enable discrete objects having a conducting inner core, surrounded by a dielectric membrane to be selectively inactivated by electric fields via irreversible breakdown of their dielectric membrane. One potential application for this is in the selection and purging of certain biological cells in a suspension. According to the '066 patent, an electric field is applied for targeting selected cells to cause breakdown of the dielectric membranes of these tumor cells, while purportedly not adversely affecting other desired subpopulations of cells. The cells are selected on the basis of intrinsic or induced differences in a characteristic electroporation threshold. The differences in this threshold can depend upon a number of parameters, including the difference in cell size.
The method of the '066 patent is therefore based on the assumption that the electroporation threshold of tumor cells is sufficiently distinguishable from that of normal cells because of differences in cell size and differences in the dielectric properties of the cell membranes. Based upon this assumption, the larger size of many types of tumor cells makes these cells more susceptible to electroporation and thus, it may be possible to selectively damage only the larger tumor cell membranes by applying an appropriate electric field. One disadvantage of this method is that the ability to discriminate is highly dependent upon cell type, for example, the size difference between normal cells and tumor cells is significant only in certain types of cells. Another drawback of this method is that the voltages which are applied can damage some of the normal cells and may not damage all of the tumor cells because the differences in size and membrane dielectric properties are largely statistical and the actual cell geometries and dielectric properties can vary significantly.
What is needed in the art and has heretofore not been available is an apparatus for destroying dividing cells, wherein the apparatus better discriminates between dividing cells, including single-celled organisms, and non-dividing cells and is capable of selectively destroying the dividing cells or organisms with substantially no effect on the non-dividing cells or organisms.